Impact of Recession on Working Capital Requirements of a Company free essay sample

Impact of Recession on Working Capital Requirements of a Company Working Capital Management is a managerial accounting strategy focusing on maintaining  efficient  levels of both components of working capital, current assets and current liabilities, in respect to each other. Working capital management ensures a company has sufficient cash flow in order to meet its short-term debt obligations and operating expenses. Implementing an effective working capital management system is an excellent way for many companies to improve their earnings. The two main aspects of working capital management are ratio analysis and management of individual components of working capital. Ratio analysis will lead management to identify areas of focus such as inventory management, cash management, accounts receivable and payable management. Working capital theory prescribes using the optimal amount of net working capital to maximize shareholder wealth. Evidence from multiple countries indicates a negative relationship between the cash conversion cycle or net working capital and firm profitability. We will write a custom essay sample on Impact of Recession on Working Capital Requirements of a Company or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page However, severe economic conditions may force firms to change their inventory, accounts receivable, and/or accounts payable policies, causing the firms to use more/less net working capital. Also, it appears firms in general held more net working capital in order to face new economic challenges. Most businesses like to plan ahead mainly focusing on setting targets and monitoring performance for sales growth, cost control and profit improvement; however the Management of Working Capital is often missed from the plan. In these times of credit crisis, trying to monitor and improve sales and profit performance may be difficult and suddenly Working Capital becomes vital. Yes, it is still important to control costs, but if the business is experiencing falling demand for its products and services, or pressure to lower prices, then â€Å"Cash is King† and the importance of control over working capital (stock levels, customer debts, amounts owed to suppliers and bank facilities) comes into sharp focus. Impact of recession on working capital components: Inventory levels: Reducing stock requires careful analysis to identify slow-moving / surplus items and attempt to turn those into cash. At the same time re-order levels need to be reviewed to see whether certain lines can be reduced or discontinued. Care is needed here to ensure that the business can still react to customer demands without falling short of stock. Accounts Receivable/Debtors: Tightening up on credit control and customer payment terms also needs careful consideration and is unlikely to be resolved overnight. It is important to handle this steadily, systematically and sensitively to avoid losing customers. However there is a point when slow payers may become uneconomical if profit margins are being eroded by the cost of the money outstanding, the time and effort to collect it or both. Accounts Payable/Creditors: Finally the possible impact of slightly relaxing the time taken to settle suppliers’ invoices needs to be considered. Deferring payment for too long may cause undesirable reactions from suppliers – they may perceive you to be a poor credit risk and reduce your permitted order levels, or consider stopping supply. The economic and credit crisis of 2008 has forced many companies into cash flow problems due to non availability of working capital and credit facilities which in turn have led to retrenchment of staff, shrinkage of operations, curtailment of plans for capital expansion into different markets and downsizing. For most of these companies such a curtailment of operations and credit crunch threatens their very existence. To overcome this problem company’s look up to finance professionals who can manage the working capital requirements through planning, obtaining additional facilities and restructuring their operations. Working capital management is one of the cornerstones of business continuity and acts as a hedge against tightening credit and access to additional capital. Companies which manage their working capital optimally during times of recessions come out stronger post the recession period. Measures adopted by companies to improve working capital position: Improve existing working capital processes (eg. standardise, reengineer, automate) Negotiate better terms with buyers and suppliers Improve information systems internally (eg. acquire new technology or pplications) Provide better sales and collections support for foreign operations Provide financing support for operating entities (eg. â€Å"internal bank†) Integrate more transparently with external information systems (e. g. , suppliers, banks) Outsource working capital processes or move to shared services centres Provide financing support for suppliers (i. e. , supply chain financing) Sell or discount receivables using a bank Best Practices to Improve Working Capital Management: Many organizations are currently re-examining their working capital metrics, looking to uncover untapped sources of cash. CFOs, controllers, and treasurers are investigating new procedures and systems to enable a leaner back-office. But they still want access to fast, actionable information about current and future cash flows and working capital requirements. Included in best practices are those that centre on streamlining the accounts payable and accounts receivable function. 1. Centralize and standardize financial transaction processing to drive maximum efficiency and to draw meaningful insights out of underlying data. 2. Use data from an enterprise resource management (ERP) system to inform daily credit and collection activities. . Conduct real-time analysis of cash flow drivers to ensure reliable forecasts and optimize spare cash. 4. Design custom measures of working capital management that are relevant to their business models. 5. Identify and resolve data discrepancies on the front end of the process. Mistakes made in Working Capital Management: Smart companies know that working capital management is a strategic tool that can fund research and development, acquisitions, share buybacks, and higher dividends. Common mistakes companies make when establishing working capital improvement programs: Believing that only the CFO can fix problems in working capital management. Engaging in efforts, such as delaying payment to suppliers or stepping up collection activities, to artificially boost quarterly or year-end metrics. Beating the cash is king drum internally and for Wall Street, but not linking executive compensation to cash flow and comprehensive working capital metrics. Waiting for a business recovery before trying to improve working capital processes. Reducing inventories without improving the overall supply chain process. Conclusion: During the recessionary period, some businesses experienced difficulties in managing their cash flow and working capital and this was sometimes exacerbated because of the difficulties in obtaining support from banks to deal with cash shortfalls. As a consequence, many businesses have made efforts to improve their arrangements for the management of cash and working capital which had somewhat deteriorated over a period of years. Moreover the continuing problems being experienced with the banks coupled with the potential future liquidity problems means that effective cash and working capital management is seen as a managerial priority.

Free Essays on The Stranger

In â€Å"The Stranger† Albert Camus portrays the world as without purpose. Meaursalt, who as a reflection of Camus is indifferent to his own life and death. Meaursalt eventually senses guilt for his crime, but not because he feels remorse for taking a life, but because he realized he would lose the little things he considered most important. The weather had made Meursault kill the Arab. The brightness of the sun caused him to pull the trigger and fire the shot that would change not only the outcome of the story, but also Meursault’s life. Because of the outburst of sunlight, Meursault was momentarily overwhelmed and his reaction was to tense up and, in doing so, he pulled the trigger of his gun. If it had been raining or overcast, Meursault would not have killed the Arab. Meursault doesn't want to kill the Arab, he even considers turning back and leaving the Arab alone. â€Å"It occurred to me that all I had to do was turn around and that would be the end of it. But th e whole beach, throbbing in the sun, was pressing on my back† (Camus 58). Meursault kills the Arab because of the sunlight’s effect on him causing physical pain which jolts him into committing a violent act. The sun was a symbol for feeling and emotion, which Meursault could not deal with. The sun was present all throughout the book. The sun was a distraction for Meursault which he could not handle. To Meursault, the sun is an influence on all his senses, as he cannot hear what someone else says to him. Meursault constantly thinks about the sun when one would expect him to be mourning the death of his mother.Meursault has shown no emotion towards his mother's death and he directs his bottled up anxiety at the sun. The sun forces Meursault to fire and kill the Arab with a revolver. What makes it worse, he fires four more times to make sure the sun is gone for good. The shooting of the Arab was a complete opening to gradual self awareness for Meursault. â€Å"My whole b... Free Essays on The Stranger Free Essays on The Stranger The Stranger The novel, â€Å"The Stranger†, written by Albert Camus is about one man’s life. The main character and the author, Meursalt, gives every detail and thought throughout the novel. He portrays himself as a person who doesn’t seem to care about much, yet he is a hero. Meursalt shows his heroic traits when he stands up for his friend, stands up for what he believes in, and always tells the truth. When Meursalt’s neighbor and friend, Raymond, gets into a fight with an Arab, Meursalt helps him with advice and physical fighting, without even thinking twice about it. To help anything serious from happening to his friend, Meursalt says, â€Å"Right. But if he doesn’t draw his knife, then you can’t shoot.† Meursalt even takes Raymond’s gun from him and says that he would shoot the Arab if the Arab pulled his knife on him. Without even thinking about it, Meursalt says that he would basically take the fall for shooting the Arab. Another way to show that Meursalt is a hero, is when he stands up for what he believes in. At the end of the novel when the chaplain comes to Meursalt’s cell to talk to him about God, he says, â€Å"Why haven’t you come to see me? I said that I didn’t believe in God. He wanted to know if I was sure and I said that I didn’t see any reason to ask myself that question: it seemed unimportant.† After that the chaplain continues to question Meursalt, insisting that he must believe in God. But Meursalt stands very strongly on what he believes in. Just like in the movie, Braveheart, the main character played by Mel Gibson is forced with a question on what he believes in. He is to lie and say he has a king, which they would kill him quick, or stand up for what he believes in by saying no, and they would torture him until he dies. He chose to stand up for what he believes in, just like Meursalt. Finally, Meursalt shows how he is a hero, by telling the truth all the time. Throughout... Free Essays on The Stranger In â€Å"The Stranger† Albert Camus portrays the world as without purpose. Meaursalt, who as a reflection of Camus is indifferent to his own life and death. Meaursalt eventually senses guilt for his crime, but not because he feels remorse for taking a life, but because he realized he would lose the little things he considered most important. The weather had made Meursault kill the Arab. The brightness of the sun caused him to pull the trigger and fire the shot that would change not only the outcome of the story, but also Meursault’s life. Because of the outburst of sunlight, Meursault was momentarily overwhelmed and his reaction was to tense up and, in doing so, he pulled the trigger of his gun. If it had been raining or overcast, Meursault would not have killed the Arab. Meursault doesn't want to kill the Arab, he even considers turning back and leaving the Arab alone. â€Å"It occurred to me that all I had to do was turn around and that would be the end of it. But th e whole beach, throbbing in the sun, was pressing on my back† (Camus 58). Meursault kills the Arab because of the sunlight’s effect on him causing physical pain which jolts him into committing a violent act. The sun was a symbol for feeling and emotion, which Meursault could not deal with. The sun was present all throughout the book. The sun was a distraction for Meursault which he could not handle. To Meursault, the sun is an influence on all his senses, as he cannot hear what someone else says to him. Meursault constantly thinks about the sun when one would expect him to be mourning the death of his mother.Meursault has shown no emotion towards his mother's death and he directs his bottled up anxiety at the sun. The sun forces Meursault to fire and kill the Arab with a revolver. What makes it worse, he fires four more times to make sure the sun is gone for good. The shooting of the Arab was a complete opening to gradual self awareness for Meursault. â€Å"My whole b... Free Essays on The Stranger The Stranger For Camus, freedom arises in awareness of one’s life, the every-moment life, an intense glorious life that needs no redeeming, no regrets, no tears. Death is unjustifiable, absurd; it is but a reintegration into the cosmos for a "free" man. Until a person reaches this awareness, life, like death, is absurd, and indeed, generically, life remains absurd, though each individual’s life can be valuable and meaningful to him. In a sense, The Stranger is a parable of Camus’ philosophy, with emphasis on that which is required for freedom. Meursault, hero of The Stranger, is not a person one would be apt to meet in reality in this respect; Meursault does not achieve the awakening of consciousness, so essential to freedom and to living Camus’ philosophy until the very end of the book, yet he has lived his entire life in according with the morality of Camus’ philosophy. His equivalent in the Christian philosophy would be an irreligious person whose homeland has never encountered Christianity who, upon having it explained by a missionary, realizes he has never sinned. What is the morality, the qualities necessary for freedom, which Meursault manifested? First, the ruling trait of his character is his passion for the absolute truth. While in Meursault this takes the form of a truth of being and feeling, it is still the truth necessary to the conquest of the self or of the world. This passion is so profound that it obtains even when denying it might save his life. Second, and not unrelated to the first, is Meursault’s acceptance of nature as what it is and nothing more, his rejection of the supernatural, including any god. Actually, "rejection" of God is not accurate until later when he is challenged to accept the concept; Meursault simply has never considered God and religion worthwhile pursuing. The natural makes sense; the supernatural doesnà ¢â‚¬â„¢t. It follows that death to Meursault also is what it is naturally; the end... Free Essays on The Stranger In The Stranger, by Albert Camus the character Meursault, who is the book's narrator and main character is very detached, and unemotional. He does not think much about events or their consequences, and he doesn’t express feeling in relationships or at emotional times. He displays a un-intrest if you will throughout the book by his reactions to the people and events described in the book. After his mother's death he didn’t cry or show any emotion on the subject at all. He shows limited feelings for his girlfriend, Marie Cardona, and shows no remorse at all for killing an Arab. He is called â€Å"the stranger† because of his reactions to life and to people. Despite this behavior of his, there is a young woman who seems to want to have a relationship with Meursault and a neighbor who wants a friendship. Meursault rarely shows any feeling when in situations, which would, for most people, create strong emotions. Throughout the vigil, and at her funeral, he never crie s. He’d rather enjo! y a cup of coffee with milk during the vigil, and have a smoke with a caretaker at the nursing home where his mother died. The following day, after his mother's funeral, he goes to the beach and meets Marie Cardona. They swim, go to a movie, and then spend the night together. Later in their relationship, Marie asks Meursault if he wants to marry her. Once again he shows a blatant amount of emotion by responding that it doesn't matter to him, and if she wants to get married, he wouldn’t abject. Then she takes an even bigger shot in the dark and asks him if he loves her. And he responds that he probably doesn't, and says that marriage really isn't such a serious thing and that it doesn't really need love. This reaction is well to say the least, typical of Meursault. He is casual and indifferent about life events. Nothing is very significant to him. Later on in the book, after he kills an Arab, not once does he show any remorse or guilt for what he did.... Free Essays on The Stranger An Exploration of â€Å"The Stranger† by Albert Camus The Stranger is a book of many facets and meanings most of which are not immediately apparent. In fact without in depth analysis the entire point of the book is easily missed. The manner of story telling in The Stranger is unique and at first hard to come to grips with. It is not the story which is especially complex but the manner in which it is told. It is done by a narrator. In his telling of his tale he neglects to mention several important aspects of his internal state, (which after a great deal of speculation seems to be what the book is really about). One soon learns that it is exactly that which is most important for complete understanding of the book, which is so carefully omitted. But, these features are not completely forgotten about, they are implied and inferred creating the need for careful analysis. For example, Camus himself, on the back cover of the book says the book is an exploration of â€Å"the nakedne ss of man faced with the absurd†; at first glance this book seems to have an almost unhealthy lack of the absurd and Camus’ statement seems meaningless. That is until the book as a whole is explored and one realizes that the lack of such is exactly what is absurd. This simple leap of thought, if the conclusion is correct is precisely the key to understanding The Stranger. It forces one to read between and even through the lines in a search for understanding, one comes to see that that which remains unwritten is the most important thing to read in this particular novel. The story begins with the death of the central character, Mersault’s, mother. That is in fact the first line of the book, the statement of this fact. It is the deadpan and uncaring manner of this statement that alerts the reader to the fact that this will be a different kind of book. The narrator never says that he is not overly distraught over his mother’s death, but it is implied through t he lan... Free Essays on The Stranger The Stranger It was a dark and stormy night. I was just about to go to bed and suddenly there was a knock on the door. Startled, I was reluctant to open the door but I gained enough courage and slowly opened it. It was my mom. In awe, I invited her in, wondering why she was out at such an hour. We sat for an hour and talked about a couple of unusual topics such as death and what happens after a person dies. When I asked her why she was talking about these subjects, she replied that my father visited her about an hour and a half before she arrived. She said that he had told her that there is no such thing as Heaven or Hell, but instead the souls of the people who die are doomed to roam the earth looking for a way out of this fate. I tried to explain to her that that is impossible, for my dad passed away almost three years ago, but my mother, being stubborn as usual, refused to believe me. I fixed up a snack for her at about 1:30 because she looked a little pale, but she refused to eat any of it. We talked for an hour or so more and finally she told me that she better get going. On her way out she told me to how proud she was of me and that she loved me with all her heart. About ten minutes later, after I just was about to fall asleep, the phone rang ((((Ring, Ring)))) ((((Ring, Ring)))). Angered, I answered and a strange voice said â€Å" Hello, Mr. Parker? I am sorry to bother you at this time of night but I couldn’t find any information on who to contact in case of an emergency. I am very sorry to inform you but your mother had a heart attack and died at about 10:56 last night.† The End... Free Essays on The Stranger An Exploration of â€Å"The Stranger† by Albert Camus The Stranger is a book of many facets and meanings most of which are not immediately apparent. In fact without in depth analysis the entire point of the book is easily missed. The manner of story telling in The Stranger is unique and at first hard to come to grips with. It is not the story which is especially complex but the manner in which it is told. It is done by a narrator. In his telling of his tale he neglects to mention several important aspects of his internal state, (which after a great deal of speculation seems to be what the book is really about). One soon learns that it is exactly that which is most important for complete understanding of the book, which is so carefully omitted. But, these features are not completely forgotten about, they are implied and inferred creating the need for careful analysis. For example, Camus himself, on the back cover of the book says the book is an exploration of â€Å"the nakedness of man faced with the absurd†; at first glance this book seems to have an almost unhealthy lack of the absurd and Camus’ statement seems meaningless. That is until the book as a whole is explored and one realizes that the lack of such is exactly what is absurd. This simple leap of thought, if the conclusion is correct is precisely the key to understanding The Stranger. It forces one to read between and even through the lines in a search for understanding, one comes to see that that which remains unwritten is the most important thing to read in this particular novel. The story begins with the death of the central character, Mersault’s, mother. That is in fact the first line of the book, the statement of this fact. It is the deadpan and uncaring manner of this statement that alerts the reader to the fact that this will be a different kind of book. The narrator never says that he is not overly distraught over his mother’s death, but it is implied through the l...

Starbucks in China Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Starbucks in China - Case Study Example As the marketing rule goes, it has been known that the best of the market share can be achieved only if the organizations and firms go global. This can also be achieved by having risk taking minds behind the strategies. Starbucks has been planning to open around 1200 stores on an international scale this year alone (Fellner, 2008, p. 12). The main strategy that has been seen to be followed and been implemented by Starbucks includes the global level joint ventures and partnerships that Starbucks has with the other coffee chains all around the world. These are the ventures that allow the other companies to own and run coffee chains. The local partner of the country knows the best locations and can make aware of the local tax issues and customer demands, thus giving Starbucks a bit added customer appeal (Earnshaw, Graham et al., 2005, p. 33). Starbucks has been seen to gain much popularity in China as compared to KFC and McDonalds. China has been embracing the idea of global trade and global business since many years and it has been seen that the foreign firms and organizations feel at home while they work in a foreign country, especially China. One of the main strategies that has been implied by Starbucks is that it is aware that the Chinese people do not like coffee. Therefore, Starbucks plans to provide the Chinese with more kinds and varieties of tea.

Discussion-MODULE 10 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Discussion-MODULE 10 - Essay Example -Classic societies in Mesoamerica included the presence of jade carvings, engineering genius, complex and perfect signs, the Oto-Manguean language, and the establishment of the 365-day secular calendar and 260-day ritual calendar . Other features included monumental stone heads, and occupation of Balsa river basin, which is the origin of the Olmec society Olmec culture. On the other hand, the lecture, textbook, the reading by Diaz del Castillo, and the video "Engineering an Empire: Aztecs," describes the origins of Aztec society and their rise to power in the Valley of Mexico. Indeed, they agree that the origin of the Aztec is legendary and uncertain but relate their traditions to hunters and gatherers who originated from the northern Mexican plateau before migrating to the Valley of Mexico. The name Aztec originated from the name Aztlà ¡n that referred to northern Mexico. The Aztec rose to power in the Valley of Mexico by forming allies with the powerful tribes in the Valley of Mexico, brilliant military campaigns, and adopting new technologies to survive in the harsh environment. Ideally, the technological achievements in Tenochtitlan enhanced their gradual accumulation of power by transforming the marshes in the Valley of Mexico into rich agricultural land that improved their economic capacity to fight their rivals. They also used technologies to expand the island and create more spaces for transporting their materials. However, the human sacrifice practice adopted by the Aztec led to their fall since they sacrificed a huge number of their people at once thus deflating their army. The human sacrifice led to the defeat by the Spaniards who later occupied the Mexico City. Moreover, the lecture, textbook, and the reading by Cieza de Leon describe the basis of Andean society and the rise of the Inca Empire. The use of huge numbers of reluctant draftees defined the basis of Andean society that was fighting the Spaniards. The Inca Empire rose in the 1440s under the

The reasons for a growing consumer preference for branded jewellery in Dissertation

The reasons for a growing consumer preference for branded jewellery in India - Dissertation Example Showing from where do you prefer purchasing jewellery Table 23. Showing if brand, what are the factors responsible for this choice Table 24. Showing, if local retailers, what factors affect this decision Table 25. Showing, from where did you get the knowledge of this store/brand Table 26. Showing, how long have you been making purchases of jewellery from this store/brand Table 27. How satisfied are you with the jewellery you buy Table 28. How important is the advertisement campaign followed by the store to make you opt for it Table 29. Before making any jewellery purchases, do you compare the designs and prices of the same between the branded showroom and the local dealers Table 30. Do you plan to shift or change the source of purchasing jewellery LIST OF FIGURES Analysis of Growing Consumer Preference for Branded Jewellery in Mumbai Figure 1. Showing how frequently do you make jewellery purchases Figure 2. Showing from where do you prefer purchasing jewellery Figure 3. Showing if br and, what are the factors responsible for this choice Figure 4. Showing, if local retailers, what factors affect this decision Figure 5. Showing, from where did you get the knowledge of this store/brand Figure 6. Showing, how long have you been making purchases of jewellery from this store/brand Figure 7. How satisfied are you with the jewellery you buy Figure 8. How important is the advertisement campaign followed by the store to make you opt for it Figure 9. Before making any jewellery purchases, do you compare the designs and prices of the same between the branded showroom and the local dealers Figure 10. Do you plan to shift or change the source of purchasing jewellery Analysis of Growing Consumer Preference for Branded Jewellery in Delhi Figure 11. Showing how... India has traditional relations with jewellery. Branded jewellery in India has established a niche for itself in the competitive Indian market. Branding is the procedure involved in making an exclusive picture and name for a product in the customers mind, generally in the course of advertising campaigns by way of a reliable and consistent theme. Significantly, the younger generation has more disposable earnings these days and they are ready to expend it on luxuries of preference. The younger citizens in their mid thirties and their seniors are normally prepared to buy branded jewellery. The aim of branding is to establish a differentiated and considerable presence in the marketplace so that it can retain and attract faithful and loyal customers. Branding is also a technique in establishing a significant business asset, which is nothing but an excellent reputation. The gems & jewellery business is one of the fastest growing businesses in the country with a market share of $13 billion in 2011 and is estimated to grow to $20 billion by 2015. In 2008-09 the business was $17.1 billion in opposition to $16.64 in 2005-06 billion, reflecting a growth of 26%. The picture of Indian ladies, wearing a sari and various types of ethnic jewellery in festival season and wedding, is no longer the sole customer profile of the world’s major gold importing state. Indian ladies around the world are turning out to be more emancipated: conveying a way of life that combines the strong values and traditions of their society and their modern worldwide approach to life, job and spending

The Boundary Of The Boundless Of Anaximander Philosophy Essay

The Boundary Of The Boundless Of Anaximander Philosophy Essay This study tells about Anaximanders theory of Apeiron and as well as his life and his philosophical background. Anaximander is said to be a younger contemporary of Thales, who also sought for the first material principle; he was a disciple and successor of Thales and philosophized in dialogue with him. He was not mentioned until the time of Aristotle. Unlike Thales, Anaximander wrote a philosophical work, entitled  On Nature; unfortunately, neither this nor any of his other works has survived. The information about his philosophy came from summaries of it by other writers, especially Aristotle and Theophrastus. Anaximander was said to have drawn the first map of the inhabited world on a tablet, which was a marvel in his day (Agathemerus  I, 1) Statement of the Problem Anaximanders theory of Apeiron, a Greek word which literarily means boundless, indeterminate, unlimited, infinite, or indefinite is an unintelligible idea about the origin of all things. It gave confusion with his Arche which means beginning, or origin. He explains how the  four elements  of ancient physics (air,  earth,  water  and  fire) are formed, and how Earth and terrestrial beings are formed through their interactions. However, unlike other Pre-Socratics, he never defines this principle precisely, and it has generally been understood (e.g., by Aristotle and by  Saint Augustine) as a sort of primal  chaos. The researcher has his own rule on doing this research. The studies came from the book and through internet. The researchers use a descriptive type of research. This research is for educational purposes and serves as a requirement in on the researchers study. All of the information that has gathered in the entire sources is a big help in answering the research. All of the information that was gathered will serve as knowledge to us and for the readers. This study will be beneficial to the students and instructors. This researchs goal is designed to help students improve academic competency. The output of this study is a source material that the teachers can assimilate and disseminate by diffusion and induction technique. The proposed study serves the students as their reference or guide in creating their research. It will also help students taking help in making their research studies about their topics. For the teachers, this study will help them to have a deeper understanding of the said research. By this study they will come up with easier and powerful research. To the researchers, the proposed study will benefit and help the future researcher as their guide. The study can also open in development of this study.   Background of the Study Anaximanders Biography Anaximander, son of Praxiades, was born in  Miletus  during the third year of the 42nd  Olympiad  (610 BC).  According to  Apollodorus of Athens, Greek grammarian of the 2nd century BC, he was sixty-four years old during the second year of the 58th Olympiad (547-546  BC), and died shortly afterwards. Establishing a timeline of his work is now impossible, since no document provides chronological references.  Themistius, a 4th-century  Byzantine  rhetorician, mentions that he was the first of the known Greeks to publish a written document on nature. Therefore his texts would be amongst the earliest written in  prose, at least in the Western world. By the time of  Plato, his philosophy was almost forgotten, and Aristotle, his successor  Theophrastus  and a few  doxographers  provide us with the little information that remains. However, we know from Aristotle that Thales, also from Miletus, precedes Anaximander. It is debatable whether Thales actually was the teacher of Anaximander, but there is no doubt that Anaximander was influenced by Thales theory that everything is derived from water. One thing that is not debatable is that even the ancient Greeks considered Anaximander to be from the Monist school which began in Miletus with Thales followed by Anaximander and finished with  Anaximenes  3rd-centuryRoman  rhetorician  Aelian  depicts him as leader of the Milesian colony to  Apollonia  on the  Black Sea  coast, and hence some have inferred that he was a prominent citizen. Indeed,  Various History  (III, 17) explains that philosophers sometimes also dealt with political matters. It is very likely that leaders of Miletus sent him there as a legislator to create a constitution or simply to maintain the colonys allegiance. Philosophical View The Apeiron Anaximander shares Thales assumption that all things originate from one original element and ultimately are that element; to use Aristotles terminology, he holds that there is a first (material) principle (arche) of all things. Unlike Thales, however, Anaximander asserts that the first principle is not water but what he calls theapeiron, translated as the indeterminate or limitless. Simplicius , drawing upon theophrastus work, gives following account of anaximanders. Anaximander named the arche and element of existing things the apeiron, being the first to introduce this name for the arche. He says that it is neither water nor any other of the so-called elements, but a different substance that is limitless or indeterminate, from which there come into being all the heavens and the worlds within them. Harmony of the Opposites Dependent upon Theophrastus, Simplicius says according to Anaximander, things perish into those things out of which they have their being, according to necessity; for they make just recompense to one another for their injustice according to the ordinance or assessment of time. The Aperion as Unconditioned and God We cannot say that the apeiron has no effect, and the only effectiveness which we can ascribe to it is that of a principle. Everything is either a source or derived from a source. But there cannot be a source of the apeiron, for that would be a limit of it. Further, as it is a Beginning, it is both uncreatable and indestructible. For there must be a point at which what has come to be reaches completion and also a termination of all passing away. That is why, as we say there is no principle of this, but it is this which is held to be the principle of other things, and to encompass all and to steer all; as those assert who do not recognize, alongside the infinite, other causes such as mind or friendship. Theories Anaximanders theories were influenced by the  Greek mythical  tradition, and by some ideas of  Thales   the father of philosophy   as well as by observations made by older civilizations in the East (especially by the Babylonian astrologists). All these were elaborated rationally. In his desire to find some universal principle, he assumed like traditional religion the existence of a cosmic order and in elaborating his ideas on this he used the old mythical language which ascribed divine control to various spheres of reality. This was a common practice for the Greek philosophers in a society which saw gods everywhere; therefore they could fit their ideas into a tolerably elastic system. Apeiron For Anaximander, the  principle  of things, the constituent of all substances, is nothing determined and not an element such as water in Thales view. Neither is it something halfway between air and water, or between air and fire, thicker than air and fire, or more subtle than water and earth.  Anaximander argues that water cannot embrace all of the opposites found in nature for example, water can only be wet, never dry and therefore cannot be the one primary substance; nor could any of the other candidates. He postulated the  apeiron  as a substance that, although not directly perceptible to us, could explain the opposites he saw around him. Anaximander maintains that all dying things are returning to the element from which they came (apeiron).   Cosmology Anaximanders bold use of non-mythological  explanatory hypotheses considerably distinguishes him from previous cosmology writers such as  Hesiod. It confirms that pre-Socratic philosophers were making an early effort to demythify physical processes. His major contribution to history was writing the oldest prose document about the  Universe  and the origins of  life; for this he is often called the Father of Cosmology and founder of astronomy. However,  pseudo-Plutarch  states that he still viewed celestial bodies as deities. Anaximander was the first to conceive a  mechanical  model of the  world. In his model, the  Earth  floats very still in the centre of the infinite, not supported by anything. It remains in the same place because of its indifference, a point of view that Aristotle considered ingenious, but false, in  On the Heavens.  Its curious shape is that of a  cylinder  with a height one-third of its diameter. The flat top forms the inhabited world, which is surrounded by a circular oceanic mass. Such a model allowed the concept that  celestial bodies  could pass under it. It goes further than Thales claim of a world floating on water, for which Thales faced the problem of explaining what would contain this ocean, while Anaximander solved it by introducing his concept of infinite (apeiron). Multiple Worlds According to Simplicius, Anaximander already speculated on the plurality of  worlds, similar to  atomists  Leucippus  and  Democritus, and later philosopher  Epicurus. These thinkers supposed that worlds appeared and disappeared for a while, and that some were born when others perished. They claimed that this movement was eternal, for without movement, there can be no generation, no destruction. In addition to Simplicius, Hippolytus  reports Anaximanders claim that from the infinite comes the principle of beings, which themselves come from the heavens and the worlds (several doxographers use the plural when this philosopher is referring to the worlds within,  which are often infinite in quantity).  Cicero  writes that he attributes different gods to the countless worlds. This theory places Anaximander close to the Atomists and the  Epicureans  who, more than a century later, also claimed that an infinity of worlds appeared and disappeared. In the  timeline of the Greek history of thought, some thinkers conceptualized a single world (Plato, Aristotle,  Anaxagoras  and  Archelaus), while others instead speculated on the existence of a series of worlds, continuous or non-continuous (Anaximenes, Heraclitus,  Empedocles  and  Diogenes).   Meteorological phenomena Anaximander attributed some phenomena, such as  thunder  and  lightning, to the intervention of elements, rather than to divine causes. In his system, thunder results from the shock of clouds hitting each other; the loudness of the sound is proportionate with that of the shock. Thunder without lightning is the result of the wind being too weak to emit any flame, but strong enough to produce a sound. A flash of lightning without thunder is a jolt of the air that disperses and falls, allowing a less active fire to break free. Thunderbolts are the result of a thicker and more violent air flow. He saw the sea as a remnant of the mass of humidity that once surrounded Earth.  A part of that mass evaporated under the suns action, thus causing the winds and even the rotation of the celestial bodies, which he believed were attracted to places where water is more abundant.  He explained rain as a product of the humidity pumped up from Earth by the sun.  For him, the Earth was slowly drying up and water only remained in the deepest regions, which someday would go dry as well. According to Aristotles  Meteorology  (II, 3), Democritus also shared this opinion. Origin of humankind Anaximander speculated about the beginnings and  origin  of animal life. Taking into account the existence of fossils, he claimed that animals sprang out of the sea long ago. The first animals were born trapped in a spiny bark, but as they got older, the bark would dry up and break. Anaximander put forward the idea that humans had to spend part of this transition inside the mouths of big fish to protect themselves from the Earths climate until they could come out in open air and lose their scales. He thought that, considering humans extended infancy, we could not have survived in the primeval world in the same manner we do presently. Other Accomplishments Cartography Maps were produced in ancient times, also notably in  Egypt,  Lydia, the  Middle East, and  Babylon. Only some small examples survived until today. The unique example of a world map comes from late Babylonian tablet BM 92687 later than 9th century BCE but is based probably on a much older map. These maps indicated directions, roads, towns, borders, and geological features. Anaximanders innovation was to represent the entire inhabited land known to the ancient Greeks. Such an accomplishment is more significant than it at first appears. Anaximander most likely drew this map for three reasons.  First, it could be used to improve navigation and trade between  Miletuss colonies and other colonies around the Mediterranean Sea and Black Sea. Second,  Thales  would probably have found it easier to convince the Ionian  city-states  to join in a federation in order to push the Median  threat away if he possessed such a tool. Finally, the philosophical idea of a global representation of the world simply for the sake of knowledge was reason enough to design one. Gnomon The  Suda  relates that Anaximander explained some basic notions of geometry. It also mentions his interest in the measurement of time and associates him with the introduction in  Greece  of the gnomon. In Lacedaemon, he participated in the construction, or at least in the adjustment, of  sundials  to indicate  solstices  and  equinoxes. Indeed, a gnomon required adjustments from a place to another because of the difference in latitude. In his time, the gnomon was simply a vertical pillar or rod mounted on a horizontal plane. The position of its shadow on the plane indicated the time of day. As it moves through its apparent course, the sun draws a curve with the tip of the projected shadow, which is shortest at noon, when pointing due south. The variation in the tips position at noon indicates the solar time and the seasons; the shadow is longest on the winter solstice and shortest on the summer solstice. However, the invention of the gnomon itself cannot be attributed to Anaximander because its use, as well as the division of days into twelve parts, came from the  Babylonians. It is they, according toHerodotus  Histories  (II, 109), who gave the Greeks the art of time measurement. It is likely that he was not the first to determine the solstices, because no calculation is necessary. On the other hand, equinoxes do not correspond to the middle point between the positions during solstices, as the Babylonians thought. As the  Suda  seems to suggest, it is very likely that with his knowledge of geometry, he became the first Greek to accurately determine the equinoxes. Prediction of an earthquake In his philosophical work  De Divinatione  (I, 50, 112), Cicero states that Anaximander convinced the inhabitants of  Lacedaemon  to abandon their city and spend the night in the country with their weapons because an earthquake was near.  The city collapsed when the top of the  Taygetus  split like the stern of a ship. Pliny the Elder also mentions this anecdote (II, 81), suggesting that it came from an admirable inspiration, as opposed to Cicero, who did not associate the prediction with divination. Philosophy Contributions Cosmology the production of the opposite and their separating off are important in his cosmology penalty and retribution of the opposites in accord to the assessment of time. The earth is cylindrical in shape and its depth is 1/3 its breath. It is immobile (the earth does not rest on water ) in the center of the universe by way of its equilibrium. The earth may someday become dry. Concerning the formation of the heavenly bodies: the sun is equal to the earth. The circles and spheres carry the heavenly bodies. An eclipse occur when the aperture of the sun or moon are blocked. Concerning meteorological phenomena: the winds thunder and lightning all these have to do with winds. Zoogamy the 1st living creatures were born in moisture and enclosed in thorny barks. As their age grows they came forth into the drier part and the bark was broken off. Anthropology- Anaximander held the theory of evolution of animals. Man was born from animals of another species (man come into being inside fishes). Conclusion Anaximander was indeed one of the greatest minds that ever lived. By speculating and arguing about the Boundless he was the first metaphysician. By drawing a map of the world he was the first geographer, by boldly speculating about the universe he broke with the ancient image of the celestial vault and became the discoverer of the Western world-picture. The Boundless has no origin. For then it would have a limit. Aristotle once said there is no beginning of the infinite, or in that case it would have an end. But without beginning and indestructible, as being, a sort of first principle is necessary for whatever comes into existence should have and end and there is a conclusion of all destruction. But there is no principle of this Apeiron (www.egs.edu/library/anaximander/qoutes) and Anaximander himself affirm that that all dying things are returning to the element which they came which is the apeiron. The fact that things dies, decays, or wither states its limit, therefore it is limite d, finite, and is bounded by the natural law. We find his theory of Apeiron unbelievable especially when it is first; a theory and has no proof, second; a paradox itself in a way that he viewed the world as tangled in a neatly bounded category. Its hard to believe on what someone has said when that someone, itself, defies what he have stated and thus formed a seemingly contradictory paradox that leads to confusion.

My Brother Jack :: essays research papers

MY BROTHER JACK 1.There are numerous reasons why this novel is titled My brother Jack. The title My Brother Jack deludes the reader in thinking the novel is based on Jack, yet we find that the prevailing concern is not ‘My Brother Jack’ at all. The title suggests a rewriting of Jack’s life. The novel is also called My Brother Jack because of the fact that the author George Johnston, portrayed as David had a brother named Jack, with whom he shared a good relationship with and was also a prominent person in his life. Since Jack is the person in whom David has the greatest sense of identity and reverence, it may well be an appropriate title. In the novel My Brother Jack David often writes about Jack and recapitulates the episodes of his life with Jack. This is evident in a statement David made about his brother as he was travelling on a train. ‘I saw him suddenly as a find of sunburnt Icarus, a freeman, buoyant and soaring in his own air, in the clear and boundless space of an element families yet new’ (pg 294). It is evident through examples, why the novel was called ‘My Brother Jack’. The title may suggest an account of Jack’s life through the eyes of David. The perception you get is that Jack’s life is of greater importance than David’s. Shifting the novel focus from his own inadequacies, George Johnston tries to in fact get the reader to confront these issues. 2. George Johnston uses the theme of deception all through the novel, through the character of David Meredith. David was the most deceitful character in the novel. He did not care who he hurt on the way to getting away from his plain and mediocre life. David basically hurt everyone in his life that ever cared about him. George Johnston used the theme of deception when David continuously deceived his parents. He lied to his parents about the paintings being his own when they were only a lithograph of Tom Middleton’s work. ‘…I would also bring printed samples of work that Tom Middleton had done, and say that I had lithographed them;’ (pg 83). Through the lies that David told and the pain that he caused it is quite clear that George Johnston has used the theme of deception throughout the novel. 3. There is an obvious contrast between his outer success and his inner failure.

Literature Review on Autism Spectrum Disorders Essay

Abstract Autism has become an increasing subject of interest, especially to researchers and medical professionals. This increase in interest is most likely due to the fact that autism is becoming an increasing problem in children, with the number of diagnoses doubling in just a four year period. In order to discover what may cause this disorder as well as finding effective ways to treat it, people must be informed and knowledgeable about autism. The current study discusses what ASD is, symptoms of this disorder, possible causes and risk factors, and methods of treatments and therapy, such as early intervention and sensory integration therapy. This study hypothesizes that sensory integration therapy will significantly improve grades and school performance in children with autism. Recently, it seems as if autism spectrum disorder (ASD) has been receiving a great deal of attention by those who work in the medical field, researchers, education providers, and parents as well. This is due to the fact that the number of diagnoses has increased significantly. In just a four year period, the number of recorded diagnoses for these types of disorders has doubled (Keen & Ward, 2004). This substantial increase in the diagnoses of ASDs could be due to the fact that doctors and other health professionals are becoming more aware of the criteria for these disorders, and are beginning to have greater recognition of ASD in more able, high functioning children. In the past, there have been several cases where high functioning children were first diagnosed with ADHD, and later received an ASD diagnoses (Keen & Ward, 2004). With the recent awareness of autism spectrum disorders, a more clear criteria has developed for the diagnoses of these disorders. In broad terms, autism spectrum disorders is a group of developmental brain disorders, collectively called ASD. It is called autism spectrum disorder because the symptoms and levels of impairment for these disorders ranges  widely in each individual with an ASD. (National Institute of Mental Health [NIMH], 2011). In fact, according to the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH, 2011), some higher functioning children may only be mildly impaired by his or hers symptoms, while other children who are low functioning may have more severely impaired by his or hers symptoms, causing them to be severely disabled. To diagnose an individual with ASD, one must meet the criteria listed in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition – Text Revision (DSM-IV-TR). Currently, there are five defined disorders that fall under the category of ASD. These disorders include autistic disorder (classic autism), Asperger’s disorder (Asperger’s syndrome), pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS), Rett’s disorder (Rett’s syndrome), and childhood disintegrative disorder (CDD) (NIMH, 2011). However, this review will focus mostly on the more common disorders, classic autism and Asperger’s syndrome. The NIMH (2011) has identified some key symptoms seen in individuals with ASD. While symptoms do vary from one child to the next, the symptoms tend to fall into three main areas. These three areas include social impairment, communication difficulties, and repetitive and stereotyped behaviors. Children with autism have trouble with social interactions and find it difficult to engage in everyday social interactions. Some of these problems with social interactions may include having trouble with making eye contact, have trouble listening to and responding to other people in their environment, and having trouble picking up on social cues and reading peoples emotions. Children with ASD may respond unusually or inappropriately when others show feelings of anger, sadness, distress, or affection (Kamps, Leonard, Vernon, Dugan, & Delquadri, 1992). Children with autism also suffer from several communication issues, such as failing or being slow to respond to verbal attempts to get their attention, developing language at a slower pace than others, repeating words or phrases that they hear, and using words that are strange or out of place, that do not really make sense to people other than the child and those close to the child whom are familiar with the child’s communication style. The last important symptom seen in children  with ASD is repetitive and stereotyped behavior. Many children with ASD tend to have odd, repetitive actions and behaviors that may be referred to as stereotyped behaviors. An example of a stereotyped behavior might be a simple gesture of the arm that is repeatedly done by the child. Children with autism often have one subject or interest that they tend to overly focus on. They tend to become obsessed with one particular subject, and will learn everything they can about the subject of interest. Because autistic children seem to display several repetitive behaviors and thoughts, a set routine is usually the best environment for a child with ASD (NIMH, 2011). While there have been many theories and suggestions of what may cause autism spectrum disorders, there is not one particular known cause of these disorders. A great deal of research has been done to examine possible causes of and risk factors for this disorder. Recently, there has been research on the hypotheses that maternal early life factors associated with hormone levels may have some correlation with being at risk of having a child with ASD. Ascherio, Lyall, Pauls, Santangelo, and Spiegelman (2011) conducted a study to see if they could find any relationships between certain maternal early life factors associated with hormone levels and the risk of having a child with an ASD. This study focuses on maternal early life factors, and how some of these reproductive and hormonal factors of mothers could put them at risk of having a child with ASD (Ascherio, Lyall, Pauls, Santangelo, & Spiegelman, 2011). The methods of this study included a cohort study with 61,596 women. Data was collected from these women, which included age of menarche (first menstrual cycle), characteristics of menstrual cycle during adolescence, use of birth control, specifically oral contraceptives, prior to have given birth, body shape, and body mass index (BMI). The results of this study showed relationships between higher BMI’s at age 18, early age at menarche, and longer use of oral contraceptives prior to first birth, and being at risk for having a child with ASD (Ascherio et al., 2011). Other risk factors for having a child with an ASD that have been studied include prenatal, or the period of time before the child is born, perinatal, or the period of delivery and immediately before and after delivery, and parental, or characteristics of the parents, factors. In a study done by  Hertz-Piccottio et al. (2010), the authors examine possible parental, prenatal and perinatal factors associated with ASD. The methods of this study was a case-control study, using a cohort of children in China. Cases came from six special education schools and two Preschool Autistic Children Special Education Institutions in Tianjin, China (Hertz-Piccottio et al., 2010). The parental risk factors that were studied included parental ages at delivery, ethnicity, occupation, education, marriage of a close relative, exposure to toxins, personality, and family medical history of different illnesses (Hertz-Piccottio et al., 2010, p. 1313). The prenatal risk factors that were examined in this study included maternal characteristics and behaviors during pregnancy, alcohol consumption, smoking and second hand smoke exposure, exposure to X-rays, attempt to terminate pregnancy, contact with toxins, emotional state, disease history, and medication history (Hertz-Piccottio et al., 2010, p. 1313). Some perinatal factors that were examined include infant gestational age at birth, fetal nuchal chord (umbilical chord wrapped around neck), cesarean delivery, and breech birth. Also included were newborn complications such as birth weight, delayed crying, and abnormal skin color due to an array of conditions such a hypoxia, apnoea, neonatal jaundice, and several other conditions (Hertz-Piccottio et al., 2010, p. 1313). The results of this study showed relationships between several of the factors examined and the risk of having a child with ASD. In relation to the prenatal risk factors studied, seven conditions during gestation were significantly associated with the risk of having a child with ASD, four of which showed the strongest relationship. The four prenatal risk factors that showed the strongest relationship included frequent maternal second-hand smoke exposure, chronic and acute medical conditions unrelated to pregnancy, maternal unhappy emotional state, and one or more gestational complications (Hertz-Piccottio et al., 2010, p. 1314). For the perinatal risk factors that were studied, seven characteristics at the time of delivery were significantly associated with autism. These characteristics include abnormal gestational age, including preterm and post-term, nuchal chord, cesarean delivery, delayed crying, newborn complications, apnoea, and neonatal jaundice (Hertz-Piccottio et al., 2010, p. 1314). For the parental characteristics studied, results showed that gravidity > 1 and advanced paternal age at delivery were  significantly associated with autism (Hertz-Piccottio et al., 2010, p. 1314). Other studies have also done research on possible perinatal, prenatal, and parental risk factors for autism. In a study done by Agerbo et al. (2005), the authors created a study in Denmark of children with ASD. This study focused on possible perinatal risk factors for autism, as well as the associations between parental psychiatric history and socioeconomic status and the risk of having a child with autism. The following perinatal factors were investigated in this study: birth weight, gestational at birth, weight for gestational age, birth weight, Apgar score at 5 minutes, fetal presentation, mode of delivery, pregnancy characteristics such as multiple gestation, and parental characteristics such as maternal smoking, maternal and paternal ages, maternal citizenship, and number of previous pregnancies. Other factors considered were parental psychiatric history, that is, if the parent had been diagnosed with a psychiatric disorder prior to the date the child was diagnosed with autism, and socioeconomic factors, including maternal education and parental wealth (Agerbo et al., 2005). As we begin to understand more about what exactly autism spectrum disorders are, what may cause these disorders, and how to diagnose children more accurately and sooner, the next step in being proactive with ASD is studying different treatment methods and developing new methods of treatment that may be more effective. The biggest impairment for most children with ASD is the social impairments caused by these disorders. Developing treatments that may help children with an ASD learn how to better interact in social situations could possibly be the most useful type of treatment for these children. Researchers have been working on several different treatment methods for children with autism, especially treatments to help develop and improve social skills. In a study done by Koegel, Koegel, Hurley, and Frea (1992), the authors seek out to find a treatment to improve social skills in children with an ASD. This study assessed whether self-management could be used as a technique to improve extended responsiveness to verbal initiations from others, without the presence of a treatment provider. The methods of this study included four children, all of whom were diagnosed with autism.  The results of the study showed that children with autism who displayed severe deficits in social skills could learn to self-manage responsivity to others in multiple community settings (Koegel, Koegel, Hurley, & Frea, 1992). Another method of treatment that is being explored is the use of social robots for the therapy of children with ASD. In a study done by Werry, Dautenhahn, Ogden, and Harwin (2001) , the researchers developed a robotic agent that could help with therapy in children with autism. This study was called the AURORA project, which started in 1998. The results so far have been quite promising, and the social robot has proven to be a very useful tool for children with autism. It gives them the opportunity to practice social interactions and serves as a social mediator (Werry, Dautenhan, Ogden, & Harwin, 2001). The treatment of autism is not a simple process. There is no single therapy or method of treatment that can completely cure an individual with autism. However, there are an assortment of treatments and therapies that have proven to be effective in treating children with autism. Quite often, children with autism combine different treatment methods and therapies to improve different skills. Some of the more common approaches at treating autism in children include behavioral procedures, such as early intervention and discrete trial trainings, speech therapy, dietary approaches, and occupational therapy ( Watling, Deitz, Kanny, & McLaughlin, 1999). Early intervention, a behavioral analytic treatment for autism, is an intensive behavioral therapy that is started as soon as a child is diagnosed with autism, usually before age 5. This type of therapy is based on the principles of operant conditioning. In this type of treatment, therapists simplify children’s environment in order to maximize successes and minimize failures. For example, the therapist might break a behavior down into smaller units and teach each unit individually, eventually linking all of the units together, which may also be called chaining. Another method of simplification that a therapist may use is discrete trial format. Discrete trial format involves a one on one interaction with a therapist that is carefully planned out, in which the child receives short and clear instructions from the therapist, and is immediately reinforced for every  correct response. Another type of treatment for children with autism that is becoming more popular is occupational therapy. Occupational therapists are trained in teaching every day skills to help the individual being treated live as independently as possible. These skills can be very helpful to children with an ASD. One of the most well-known types of therapy occupational therapists use to help treat autism is sensory integration therapy. Those who practice this type of therapy hypothesize that the primary symptoms of autism are disturbances in sensory modulation. Consequently, children with autism have difficulties in social relating, communication, and language. Because children with autism have these disturbances in regulating sensory input appropriately, they suffer from several social and communication problems (Case-Smith & Bryan, 1999). The sensory integration approach attempts to stimulate and challenge the senses of the individual being treated (Cohn, 2001). A common symptom in individuals w ith autism is being either over stimulated under-stimulated by their environment. They often have trouble learning to combine and integrating their different senses. These sensory difficulties may be a cause of communication problems and social interaction problems in children with autism. Because they have such difficulty regulating their sensory systems, they tend to have trouble socializing and interacting with others. Some individuals with autism practice certain stereotyped behaviors, such as lining up toys or moving a toy back and forth on a table. This may be an attempt to try and regulate their sensory systems. The sensory integration approach aims to help children with autism improve their sensory processing and modulation. There are three elements typically included in this approach: helping parents better understand their child’s behavior, helping parents/teachers modify the child’s environment in order to meet his or hers sensory needs, and helping children organize responses to sensory input. However, each sensory integration therapy session is unique to the individual being treated. Occupational therapists must conside r different individuals’ unique needs and goals (Case-Smith & Bryan, 1999). Sensory integration therapy is the most used technique in occupational  therapy for the treatment of children with autism, with 95% of occupational therapists using this approach at least some of the time. The reason for its popularity in the treatment of autism is because of its proven efficacy in helping improve social interactions and communications. In a study done by Case-Smith and Bryan (1999) the authors found that sensory integration therapy can significantly increase mastery play, or the child’s interactions with the physical environment. They also found that sensory integration therapy significantly decreases non-engaged behaviors, or behaviors where the child is not interacting or minimally interacting with their environment. Examples of these behaviors include unfocused staring or aimless wandering. In a study by Cohn (2001), the author is concerned with parents’ perspectives of the sensory integration approach used in the treatment of their children. In t his study, the author found that sensory integration was successful in helping parents understand their children’s problems. While there is a great deal of research that has been done on the sensory integration approach as a treatment for children with autism and the efficacy of this treatment in improving certain social behaviors, there is not much literature on the effects of sensory integration therapy on grades and school performance of children with autism. In consideration to prior research in relation to autism and the treatment methods, the current study hypothesizes that sensory integration therapy will significantly improves grades and school performance in children with autism. Methods Participants Participants of this study will consist of young children with autism or another type of ASD, attending some type of day care or school for children with disabilities. Participants will be in the age group of 3 years old to 7 years old. There will be about 10-15 total participants. Materials This study will be a single-subject design, where each participant serves as his or hers own control group. The study will be conducted right after a break in school, such as winter break or summer break. When the students return from the break in school, they will attend school for three to four weeks without receiving any therapy or treatment. At the end of this period, grades will be assessed as well as general school performance such has  participation and behavior. After the three week period of no therapy, intervention will be initiated and children will all receive sensory integration therapy. Children will receive this therapy within the school for six to eight weeks. At the end of this intervention period, grades and school performance will be assessed again. Procedure The therapy sessions will take place in the day care or school building. Observations of the participants will be made in the classroom, both before the intervention period and during the intervention period. These observations will assess each child’s individual school performance, including things such as participation and class behaviors. Grades will also be assessed both before the intervention and during the intervention period. Students will return to school after their break and will not receive any therapy for three weeks. After the first three weeks, the intervention will be initiated and the children will each participate individually in a form of sensory integration therapy under the supervision of a trained occupational therapist. Each therapy session will be unique to the individual and his or hers unique needs or goals. At the end of the intervention period, grades will be assessed again. The grades and school performance of each child before the therapy was star ted will be compared with the grades and school performance assessed during and at the end of the therapy, using SPSS or some sort of statistical analysis program, to determine whether or not sensory integration therapy significantly improves grades and school performance in children with autism. References Agerbo, E., Eaton, W. W., Larsson, H. J., Madsen, K. M., Mortensen, P. B., Oleson, A. V., †¦Vestergaard, M. (2005). Risk factors for autism: Perinatal factors, parental psychiatric history, and socioeconomic status. American Journal of Epidemiology. 161(10), 916-925. doi:10.1093/aje/kwi123 Ascherio, A., Lyall, K., Pauls, D. L., Santangelo, S., & Spiegelman, D. (2011). Maternal early life factors associated with hormone levels and the risk of having a child with an autism spectrum disorder in the nurses health study II. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders,41, 618- 627. doi:10.1007/s10803-010-1079-7 Case – Smith, J., & Bryan, T. (1999). The effects of occupational therapy with sensory integration emphasis on preschool-age children with autism. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 53, 489 – 497. Cohn, E. S. (2001). Parent perspectives of occupational therapy using a sensory integration approach. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 55, 285-294. Hertz- Picciotto, I., Lv, C. C., Miao, R. J., Qi, L., Tian, J., Xi, W., & Zhang, X. (2010) Prenatal and perinatal risk factors for autism in china. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 40, 1311-1321. doi: 10.1007/s10803-010-0992-0 Kamps, D. M., Leonard, B. R., Vernon, S., Dugan, E. P., Delquadri, J. C., Gershon, B.,†¦Folk, L. (1992). Journal of Applied and Behavior Analysis, 25 (2), 281-288. Keen, D. & Ward, S. (2004). Autistic spectrum disorder a child population profile. The National Autistic Society, 8 (1), 39-48. Koegel, L. K., Koegel, R. L., Hurley, C., & Frea, W. (1992). Improving social skills and disruptive behavior in children with autism through self-management. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 25, 341-353. Smith, Tristram. (1999). Outcome of early intervention for children with autism. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice,6, (1), 33-49. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Mental Health. (2011). A parent’s guide to autism spectrum disorder (NIH Publication No. 11-5511). Retrieved from http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/a-parents-guide-to-autism-spectrum-disorder/complete-index.shtml#pub6 Watling, R., Deitz, J., Kanny, E. M., & McLaughlin, J. F. (1999). Current practice of occupational therapy for children with autism. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 53, 498–505. Werry, I., Dautenhahn, K., Ogden, B., & Harwin, W. (2001). Can social interaction skills be taught by a social agent? The role of a robotic mediator in autism therapy.

Image of Society essays

Image of Society essays The influence of media in society has effects on various age groups. When newspapers, magazine, and flyers, were the only mass media in the old days, influence of media in society wasn ¡Ã‚ ¯t as prominent as present. The development of technology has a significant impact on the contemporary society. The most effective and fastest tactic to reach people ¡Ã‚ ¯s mind is through media images and programs today. Television, as a prominent approach to deliver message, has potential to generate both the positive and negative effects on society. Not all media through radios and televisions are harmful. However, exposure to violence, inappropriate sexuality and offensive language are very convincing; especially to the children and teenagers. The growth of media also opened door to different culture across the world, which not only disturbs the contemporary society, but strengthen human access to the open world. Recently, the Hip-Hop industry is shaping the trendiest teenagers in America with their powerful and significant market force. How is Hip-Hop culture reaching out to the all the teenagers in the United States? The answer is simple. It's through media that is delivered straight to the living rooms of every family and they are present all around the world. It was impossible to be effective as it is now without the media. The most Americans in the old days were not introduced to different cultures such as: African-American culture or Asian culture, because media was dominated by white communities in earlier centuries in America. It was not until later when other ethnic groups were showed on TV screens. Then they started to catch up with the cultures all over the world. This illustrates that media limits people ¡Ã‚ ¯s creativity and well as widen the gap between different cultures. It would have been difficult to represent hip-hop culture without power of media. Ever since, demand for television grew dramatically; more people now have bet...

Slavery in America Essay Essay Example

Slavery in America Essay Essay Example Slavery in America Essay Essay Slavery in America Essay Essay Slavery in America Essay Thesis Introduction Slavery is a topic that has dominated the history of America throughout its first 250 years. The landowners believed to have been from the South subjected to servitude more than four million individuals shipped from the African continent to work in their farmlands. Throughout the entire period, the South Americans economic, social and economic landscape revolved around revolved around this peculiar institution, of slavery. Thus, slavery greatly shaped the American history (Acharya, Blackwell Sen, 2014). Scholars have delved into this topic and submitted volumes of research on its consequences. Nonetheless, the social scientists have expressed less interest in investigating the continued influence of slavery on contemporary issues in America and even the African Continent. This proposal, therefore, investigates the history of slavery and establishes the ways in which this history impacts contemporary society with a focus on political attitudes in South America. Essay on Slavery in America Statement of Purpose Slavery was illegalized internationally over 150 years ago. Nonetheless, its implications on the contemporary affairs have continued to be felt in the society. It is on this basis that other history scholars have referred to the aftermath as an institutional legacy. The purpose of this proposal is to investigate the history of slavery and establish the impacts that it has had on the contemporary society in South America focusing on the political attitude of the Southern whites living in regions that were largely inhabited by slaves. Literature Review While slavery began with civilization, where those defeated in wars were taken as slaves, the height of slavery took place between 1400 and 1900. This was due to slave trade where people were captured and sold off as slaves. During this period, four main slave trades took place. They were the trans-Atlantic slave trade, the trans-Saharan slave trade, the Indian Ocean slave trade, and the Red Sea Slave trade (Everett, 2014). Slaves were shipped mainly from the African continent with West Africa, Eastern Africa, and West-Central Africa being the regions that were affected the most. Historical accounts indicate that the individuals who were sold into slavery in the early slave trade were almost entirely prisoners of war. Since raids normally involved villages attacking other villages to capture slaves, this form of attaining slaves often resulted in hostile relations between villages causing conflicts between communities. However, studies on the manner of slave procurement in the 19thce ntury indicate that during this period, slaves were obtained using a number of ways. These include kidnapping, trickery, and through a judicial process. According to a study by Cooper, Holt and Scott (2014), wars accounted for 24.3 percent of slaves captured in the 19thcentury, kidnapping 40.3 percent, judicial process 16.0 percent, and trickery 19.4 percent. While slavery took place in many regions such as England, it is America that gained notoriety for slavery to the point that when slavery is discussed, it is normally discussed with reference to America. The high level of slavery in America was mainly due to agricultural and industrial revolution. In the 19thcentury, America experienced an unprecedented growth in agriculture particularly of cash crops (Cooper, Holt Scott, 2014). For example, between 1817 and 1860, cotton production in America increased from 461,000 to 4.8 million bales. This growth in cash crop farming resulted in a high demand for labor. Slavery was thereby used to provide this labor. Slaves were the most preferred source of labor because their services were for free which made agriculture a very profitable venture. The cheap labor provided by slaves increased slave trade and slavery in the 19thcentury. Although most of the slave owners had less than ten slaves under their ownership, many of the slaves lived together on plantations in groups that comprised of twenty or more individuals. In spite of the forceful persistence by whites that slaves were barbarians, the presence of large groups of these slaves allowed for a steady formation of a distinctive African-American culture. According to Everett, (2014), white people enjoyed the music, dancing, and stories by slaves even though they failed to recognize the slave culture as a legitimate culture. Most slave owners also encouraged their slaves to marry. According to Cooper, Holt and Scott (2014), they believed that allowing slaves to have families made them docile and thereby less inclined to escape or rebel. However, the stability of most slave families was disrupted constantly through sexual abuse, violence, and separation carried out by masters. While slaves brought to America arrived with different languages, cultural practices, and religions, they shared common modes of cultural expression and understanding that formed the basis of a common culture (Everett, 2014). In addition, tied together with a common cord of slavery, slaves strove together to develop strategies that would enable them to live satisfactorily. Using their African heritage, slaves developed their own values and way of life. Slave Revolt Although slaves tried to adapt to the harsh conditions that they were subjected by their masters, in some cases the conditions became too harsh prompting slaves to revolt. Some of the notable slave revolts include the one led by Gabriel Prosser in 1800 in regions of Richmond and Denmark Vesey in the year 1822 in Charleston. However, few of the slave revolts achieved any notable success. The slave revolt which terrified white slaveholders the most was the one led by Nat Turner in August 1831 in Virginia. Turners group which numbered about 75 blacks killed 60 white people in two days before being overwhelmed by armed resistance from local white people and state militia forces. According to Everett, (2014), the rebellion by Turner made supporters of slavery claimthat the rebellion was evidence of black peoples inherent savagery and that slavery was needed to discipline black people. The fear of similar revolutions made many southern states, where slavery was prevalent, to tighten their slave codes that limited slave education, assembly, and movement.

Recruitment Process Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Recruitment Process - Essay Example They are also needed for issuing Job advertisements. It will help the prospective candidate if she/he is provided with these documents, so that she/he can self analyze her/his suitability for the post concerned at the time of application. Competency Frameworks provide a map or indication of the behaviours that will be needed by an organization from its employees. A candidate will be evaluated while recruitment on the basis of the competency framework of the organization. In this paper we will try to understand the term 'person specifications and competency framework', how it works in the context of recruitment and the relative strengths and weakness of person specification and competency framework in the recruitment process. Person Specification is a document that clearly outlines a framework of the skills a person need to possess in order to do the tasks specified on the job description. A job description describes the nature of the job, whereas a Person Specification describes the qualities of the person needed to do that particular job. The criteria that will be used in selecting candidates are listed in the Person Specification. The Person Specification should provide: It is very much essential that utmost care is taken while preparing a person specification. ... A set of criteria against which all the candidates shall be objectively measured. A structured and systematic tool for comparative assessment of all the candidates. A document, which ensures the basis of decision-making transparent. It is very much essential that utmost care is taken while preparing a person specification. It has been found that there is always a tendency to inflate the requirements in terms of academic qualifications, work experiences etc. This results in unjustified rejection of deserving candidates. Hence the first fundamental rule to be followed during preparing Person Specification shall be to minimize the standards required by a person to be able to perform the job satisfactorily. Due consideration should be given to the fact that any person will eventually improve performance while performing her/his job. There also should be consideration for the scope of training the candidate may be given. Several models of Person Specification are in vogue. However the widely followed ones are the ones designed by Alec Rodger in 1952 and Munro Fraser in 1978. The essence of the models can be described as the Person Specification should mainly cover three areas of requirements: Knowledge Skills Personal attributes or Qualities The seven-point plan developed by Rodger is: Physical Make up : If the job requires any special physical requirement Attainments : Academic qualification and training General Intelligence : General intelligent level required for the job. Special Aptitudes : like verbal, vocal or other abilities related to the job. Interests : Personal interest Disposition : Job-related behaviour Circumstances : Job-related circumstances like response to emergency The five-point plan developed by Fraser is: Impact on

Comparative Advantage and Corporate Social Responsibility Assignment

Comparative Advantage and Corporate Social Responsibility - Assignment Example To understand more about comparative advantage, the author will feature in an example. In country A, a worker using machinery produces 4 shirts and 4 skirts per hour while in country B which has less machinery, a worker produces 4 shirts and 2 skirts per hour. It is evident that the less efficient country has a comparative advantage in producing shirts. With the absence of trade, the opportunity cost per shirt is 2 skirts. Bearing in mind that the more efficient country has a 1:1 trade-off, the cost per shirt may reduce to as low as 1 skirt depending on the volume of trade. The more efficient country has a comparative advantage in skirts. It would, therefore, make economic sense if the country shifted its shirts production resources to produce more skirts. It would then trade them for shirts. In economics, the net benefits realized by each country are called the gains from trade. The idea of comparative advantage was first mentioned and developed in Adam Smith’s book The Wealt h of Nations. Here, he puts the theory as follows: if a foreign country can supply us with a commodity cheaper than when we ourselves can make it, it is better to buy it from them with gains realized from our own industry. This has to be employed or designed in a way that we have some advantage. David Ricardo, in his 1817 book, On the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation, investigated the advantages and alternatives as well as relative opportunity in an example involving Portugal and England. In his book, he noted that in Portugal, it was possible to produce both cloth and wine using less labor compared to producing the same quantities in England. He also noted that the relative costs met in producing those two goods were different in the two countries.